Magadha/History

For most of India's early historical era, the northern half of that country was dominated by the kingdom of Magadha. At its height, Magadha was a significant regional power, whose kings fought expansionist wars to increase the size of their lands.

The beginning of “classical India” was when the Achaemenid Persians invaded the Indus Valley region in 572BC. The local Aryans led by Magadha joined together to try to repel the Persians, but internal religious conflict prevented unity, yet this did not prevent the kingdom from eventually absorbing most of what is today considered to be northeastern India. The kingdom was eventually overthrown by a military officers, Chandragupta, who upon returning from Gandhara in the west, absorbed Magadha and made it the core of his new kingdom, the Magadha Empire.

The army
Like most Indian armies, the ancient armies of Magadha must have very much been sociologically if not hierarchically similar to those used by the Persians or the Chinese — consisting of a corps of chariot or elephant cavalrymen, drawn from the warrior or kshatriya castes around which infantry would have been arrayed — these may have been drawn from poorer members of the kshatriya, or could well be "cannon fodder" opportunistically inducted from the lower classes such as shudras. Weapons such as javelins, swords and spears and arrows were used; others such as the hatchet and the mace — mentioned in many Hindu religious texts, particularly the Bhagavad-Gita — would have been commonplace too. More exotic weapons like halberds or crossbow (already in use in China, and known to the Greeks) seem to have been unknown to the Indians. Various sources also state that the Magadhans at the time of the Haryankas were proficient in siege warfare — we hear the use of weapons, probably scythed chariots (ratha-musala), catapults (mahasilakantaka) and battering rams — in the service of Ajatashatru's armies in the 484–468BCE conquest of the Licchavi republic of Vaishali (centred near present-day Hajipur).

Later Alexander the Great invaded this region, in 327 B.C., spreading Hellenistic (Greek) influence. The time Alexander's troops spent in India must have been a strange experience for them. For example, they had never before seen elephants. Imagine their surprise when the Indians fought from atop these massive creatures during a battle on the banks of the river. In that same battle, Alexander's favorite horse, Buchephalus, was injured and died. After that, Alexander wanted to continue East, but his troops refused, and he was forced to leave India unconquered. So only India was able to stop Alexander the Great, or at least survive his conquests.

Afterward, in 322 B.C., Chandragupta Mauryan defeated the Greek general Seleucus, who ruled a large part of East Asia which Alexander the Great had conquered. Chandragupta Mauryan became king of Seleucus' land, creating the largest Indian empire in India's history. He built an elaborate capital city at Pataliputra, which surpassed even the splendor of the great Persian cities and was the largest city in the world at that time, with over 150,000 inhabitants. It was home to several Buddhist monasteries.

Chandragupta Mauryan built a massive army of 500,000 soldiers and his adviser, Kautilya, wrote a book on how to maintain political power entitled the "Arthashastra". He wrote that punishment was the key to government. In other words, Chandragupta was a tough dictator. But his name is revered, as many Indians to this day bear the last name of "Chandra" or "Gupta".

Chandragupta's grandson, Ashoka, underwent a religious conversion from Hinduism to Buddhism while he held power (268-232 B.C.). Buddhism emphasizes non-violence and Ashoka's conversion caused him to rule as a benevolent dictator, stressing compassion and even apologizing for his role in killing 150,000 Indians! He displayed tolerance towards all religions and helped erect shrines to Hinduism and Jainism, another religion of India. Ashoka elevated the status of women, who were already highly respected under the Hindu culture. In Buddhism women could become monks. He also promoted trade with the expanding Roman empire to the West, and with the growing Han dynasty in China to the East. But after Ashoka died, the empire fell into civil war, and became vulnerable to outside invaders, such as the Bactrian Greeks in the second century B.C. and the Buddhist Kushan in 100 B.C. A council of Buddhist monks was convened under Kanishka, King of Kushan, to regulate Buddhism, and the result was a new form of Buddhism: Mahayana Buddhism.

The other major Indian empire was the Gupta empire, from A.D. 320 to 467. In A.D. 320 Chandra Gupta I rose to power, who had no connection with the prior ruler Chandragupta Mauryan. Chandra Gupta I conquered the Ganges Valley, and established a new Hindu dynasty. Trade with the rest of the world flourished under his regime, and he had a policy of religious tolerance. Intellectual and economic achievement was high. One famous poet and playwright was Kalidasa, who wrote epic poems and plays that were much more upbeat and happy than the dreary Greek tragedies.

The Indian number system developed, which was later misnamed the "Arabic numerals." The entire world uses this system of numbering today: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. A Buddhist monastery at Nalanda established a university that attracted thousands of students. A great Indian doctor named Caraka developed a code of medical ethics, and the practice of medicine flourished. Indians also developed a form of iron that could withstand rust, and it was used in buildings.